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| Pricing | Free | Free |
| Capabilities | 6 decomposed | 11 decomposed |
| Times Matched | 0 | 0 |
Provides 113,000 question-answer pairs where each question requires traversing and reasoning across 2+ Wikipedia articles to derive the answer. The dataset includes explicit supporting fact annotations identifying which sentences from source documents are necessary for answering, enabling training of models that can both answer questions and explain their reasoning chains. Built through crowdsourced annotation with quality control mechanisms to ensure multi-hop reasoning is genuinely required rather than answerable from single documents.
Unique: Explicitly annotates supporting facts at sentence-level granularity rather than just providing QA pairs, enabling evaluation of both answer correctness AND reasoning transparency. The dataset design enforces multi-hop requirements through crowdsourcing validation that questions cannot be answered from single documents.
vs alternatives: Differs from SQuAD (single-document QA) and MS MARCO (web-scale but less structured) by providing explicit multi-hop reasoning requirements with supporting fact labels, making it uniquely suited for training interpretable reasoning systems rather than just answer extraction.
Provides a structured evaluation methodology for assessing whether QA systems can correctly identify which source sentences support their answers. The framework compares predicted supporting facts against human-annotated ground truth using precision, recall, and F1 metrics at both sentence and paragraph levels. This enables measurement of reasoning transparency independent of answer correctness, allowing diagnosis of whether a system found the right answer for the right reasons.
Unique: Decouples supporting fact evaluation from answer correctness, enabling independent assessment of reasoning transparency. Provides both sentence-level and paragraph-level metrics, allowing evaluation at different granularities depending on system architecture.
vs alternatives: Unlike generic QA metrics (EM/F1) that only measure answer correctness, this framework specifically evaluates whether systems can justify their reasoning, addressing the explainability gap in black-box QA systems.
Structures questions to require explicit composition of facts across multiple Wikipedia articles, creating a benchmark where naive single-document retrieval fails. Questions are designed such that the answer cannot be found in any single article; instead, the system must retrieve multiple relevant documents, identify the connecting entity or relationship, and synthesize information across them. This tests whether systems can perform true multi-hop reasoning versus pattern matching on single documents.
Unique: Explicitly validates that questions require multi-hop reasoning through crowdsourced verification that single-document retrieval cannot answer them. Questions are structured around entity linking and relationship composition, forcing systems to perform genuine multi-stage reasoning rather than single-stage retrieval.
vs alternatives: Compared to general QA datasets like Natural Questions (single-hop, web-scale) or SQuAD (single-document), HotpotQA's explicit multi-hop requirement and supporting fact annotations make it uniquely suited for evaluating whether systems perform compositional reasoning vs. pattern matching.
Provides a controlled evaluation setting where systems must distinguish relevant documents from distractors. The dataset includes both supporting documents (necessary for answering) and distractor documents (related to the question but not required for the answer). This tests whether retrieval systems can rank supporting documents above distractors, a critical capability for multi-hop QA where false positives in retrieval compound through reasoning stages. Evaluation measures whether systems retrieve all necessary documents while minimizing false positives.
Unique: Provides explicit distractor documents alongside supporting documents, enabling controlled evaluation of retrieval precision and recall. Distractors are selected to be topically related but not necessary for answering, testing whether systems can distinguish genuine supporting evidence from noise.
vs alternatives: Unlike open-domain QA datasets that evaluate retrieval against the full web, HotpotQA's controlled distractor set enables precise measurement of retrieval quality independent of corpus size, making it easier to diagnose retrieval failures in multi-hop systems.
Categorizes questions into distinct reasoning types (e.g., 'bridge' questions requiring entity linking between documents, 'comparison' questions requiring fact synthesis) and provides labels enabling analysis of system performance across reasoning patterns. This allows fine-grained evaluation of which reasoning types systems handle well vs. poorly, and enables targeted training or evaluation on specific compositional reasoning challenges. The taxonomy captures the structural reasoning requirements independent of domain content.
Unique: Provides explicit question type labels capturing the structural reasoning requirements (bridge, comparison, etc.) independent of domain content. Enables analysis of whether systems struggle with specific reasoning patterns vs. general knowledge gaps.
vs alternatives: Unlike generic QA datasets without reasoning type labels, HotpotQA's type taxonomy enables targeted evaluation and debugging of reasoning capabilities, allowing researchers to identify whether failures stem from retrieval, entity linking, or fact composition.
Questions are generated from Wikipedia articles and require reasoning over real-world entities, relationships, and facts. This grounds reasoning in a concrete knowledge domain (Wikipedia) rather than synthetic or template-based questions, enabling evaluation of whether systems can handle real-world complexity. Questions span diverse topics (people, places, films, organizations) and reasoning patterns (attribute lookup, entity linking, relationship chaining).
Unique: Questions are grounded in real Wikipedia entities and relationships rather than synthetic templates, requiring models to handle actual knowledge base complexity (entity disambiguation, relationship chaining, fact lookup). This makes reasoning evaluation more realistic than template-based datasets.
vs alternatives: Grounds reasoning in a real, large-scale knowledge base (Wikipedia) rather than synthetic examples, enabling evaluation of whether systems can handle real-world entity linking and relationship reasoning.
Aggregates 100+ billion deduplicated documents (30 trillion tokens) from 84 CommonCrawl dumps across 5 languages (English, German, French, Spanish, Italian). Each document is pre-annotated with 40+ quality signals including perplexity scores, deduplication hashes, content classifiers, and toxicity ratings computed via a standardized pipeline. The architecture processes raw CommonCrawl HTML through text extraction, deduplication, and multi-dimensional quality scoring, enabling downstream users to apply custom filtering strategies without reprocessing the raw data.
Unique: Processes 84 CommonCrawl dumps (claimed as most complete coverage vs. C4, Refinedweb, Dolma, SlimPajama) with 40+ pre-computed quality annotations per document, enabling fine-grained data curation research without requiring users to reprocess raw CommonCrawl. Open-source processing scripts allow reproducibility and custom filtering strategies on a standardized base dataset.
vs alternatives: Larger scale (30 trillion tokens vs. C4's 156B tokens, RedPajama-1T's 1T tokens) with richer quality annotations (40+ signals vs. minimal metadata in competitors) and multilingual coverage, making it superior for comparative curation research and training diverse language models.
Implements deduplication across 100+ billion documents using hash-based matching to identify and remove duplicate content from CommonCrawl. The pipeline computes deduplication hashes for each document and filters the raw 100+ trillion token corpus down to 30 trillion deduplicated tokens. This approach preserves document boundaries (unlike token-level deduplication) and produces deterministic, reproducible results across reprocessing runs.
Unique: Uses document-level hash-based deduplication (preserving document boundaries) rather than token-level or fuzzy matching, enabling reproducible filtering and transparent deduplication hashes that users can inspect and verify. Processes 84 CommonCrawl dumps with consistent deduplication methodology.
Document-level deduplication is more interpretable and reproducible than token-level approaches, and the published deduplication hashes enable users to understand and verify which documents were removed, unlike proprietary datasets that hide deduplication decisions.
RedPajama v2 scores higher at 59/100 vs HotpotQA at 58/100.
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Provides the entire 30 trillion token corpus, processing scripts, and quality annotations as free, open-source resources with no licensing restrictions. Users can download, modify, redistribute, and use the data for any purpose including commercial applications. This open approach enables broad research access and community-driven improvements without vendor lock-in.
Unique: Provides complete 30 trillion token corpus with processing scripts as free, open-source resources with no licensing restrictions, whereas competitors (C4, RefinedWeb) may have usage restrictions or require commercial licensing
vs alternatives: Eliminates licensing costs and vendor lock-in through open-source distribution, enabling broad access for academic and commercial use versus competitors with restricted access or licensing requirements
Computes perplexity scores for each document using a reference language model, enabling quantitative assessment of text quality and language model fitness. The perplexity metric measures how well a pre-trained model predicts the document; lower perplexity indicates higher-quality, more coherent text. These pre-computed scores allow users to filter documents by quality threshold without running inference themselves, and to study the relationship between perplexity and downstream model performance.
Unique: Pre-computes perplexity scores for 100+ billion documents, eliminating the computational cost of running inference for quality assessment. Enables comparative studies of how perplexity thresholds affect training outcomes without requiring users to implement their own scoring pipeline.
vs alternatives: Provides pre-computed perplexity scores (eliminating inference cost) whereas competitors like C4 use heuristic filters (URL patterns, line-ending ratios); perplexity is a more principled, model-based quality metric but requires understanding of the reference model used.
Annotates each document with content classifiers and toxicity ratings, enabling category-based filtering and safety-aware data curation. The pipeline applies pre-trained classifiers to categorize document content (e.g., news, forums, documentation) and compute toxicity scores. These annotations are pre-computed and stored with each document, allowing users to filter by content type or toxicity threshold without running inference themselves.
Unique: Pre-computes both content classifiers and toxicity ratings for 100+ billion documents, enabling multi-dimensional safety and content-based filtering without requiring users to implement or run their own classifiers. Supports comparative studies of how content filtering affects model behavior.
vs alternatives: Provides pre-computed toxicity and content annotations (eliminating inference cost) whereas most web datasets require downstream filtering; enables safety-aware curation at scale without custom classifier implementation.
Publishes end-to-end processing scripts on GitHub that convert raw CommonCrawl HTML to deduplicated, annotated documents. The pipeline is fully open-source, enabling users to understand, verify, and reproduce the data processing methodology. Scripts handle HTML-to-text conversion, deduplication, quality signal computation, and filtering, allowing researchers to reprocess data with custom parameters or apply the same methodology to new CommonCrawl dumps.
Unique: Publishes complete, open-source processing scripts enabling full reproducibility and transparency of data processing methodology. Users can inspect, verify, and reapply the pipeline to new data, unlike proprietary datasets where processing is opaque.
vs alternatives: Open-source pipeline enables reproducibility and auditability vs. proprietary datasets (C4, Refinedweb) where processing methodology is proprietary or partially documented; enables research on data processing methodology itself.
Enables users to apply custom filtering strategies by combining 40+ pre-computed quality signals (perplexity, toxicity, content classifiers, deduplication hashes, etc.). Rather than providing pre-filtered 'ready-to-train' datasets, RedPajama v2 provides the raw signals and lets users define their own filtering logic. This architecture supports comparative studies of curation strategies and enables organizations to apply domain-specific or value-aligned filtering without reprocessing the base dataset.
Unique: Provides 40+ pre-computed quality signals enabling fine-grained, user-defined curation strategies rather than pre-filtered datasets. This architecture supports comparative research on curation methodology and enables organizations to apply custom filtering without reprocessing the base dataset.
vs alternatives: Enables comparative curation research (studying how different filtering strategies affect outcomes) whereas competitors provide pre-filtered datasets; gives users control over filtering logic but requires more implementation effort.
Provides 30 trillion tokens across 5 languages (English, German, French, Spanish, Italian) with consistent quality signal annotations applied uniformly across all languages. The architecture processes each language through the same deduplication, quality scoring, and classification pipeline, enabling comparative studies of language-specific data characteristics and training multilingual models on a standardized base dataset. Language-specific processing details are not documented, but the consistent annotation methodology enables cross-language analysis.
Unique: Provides 30 trillion tokens across 5 languages with identical quality signal annotations, enabling comparative studies of language-specific data characteristics and training multilingual models on a standardized base. Consistent annotation methodology across languages enables cross-language analysis.
vs alternatives: Larger multilingual coverage (5 languages, 30 trillion tokens) than RedPajama-1T (English-only, 1 trillion tokens) and most competitors; consistent annotation enables comparative language research, but limited to European languages vs. competitors with broader language coverage.
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